The English Vocabulary Is Central To Language

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

Introduction

English vocabulary is central to language and of critical importance to English teaching. The development of vocabulary teaching is significant in English teaching. Over the past thirty years, metacognition and metacognitive strategies have caught people��s eye. There are more and more researches on English vocabulary learning strategies. This paper researches into application of metacognitive strategies to vocabulary learning in junior high schools, through metacognitive strategy training based on metacognitve theory, hoping to offer some help in vocabulary teaching and learning in junior high schools.

1.1 Requirement of vocabulary teaching and monitoring strategy

The requirement in the English Curriculum Standard of Compulsory Education (ECSCE) issued by the Ministry of Education in 2011 is: (1) Be able to master required words, phrases, idioms and conventional usages. (2) Be able to understand and master words�� basic sound and meaning, and the meaning in specific context. (3) Be able to apply vocabulary to describe things, behavior and characteristics, and to explain concepts. (4) Be able to be able to use 1500 to 1600 words and 200 to 300 idioms or conventional usages.

The monitoring strategy stated in the English Curriculum Standard (2011) is: 1. Keeping in mind the aim of learning English. 2. Knowing the need of one��s learning. 3. Making a practical plan for learning English. 4. Grasping the important points and difficult points in the learning content. 5. Being aware of and reflective on the progress and deficiency in the process of learning English. 6. Seeking actively the proper English learning methods. 7. Communicating with teachers and classmates on learning experience regularly. 8. Participating in English learning activities of indoor or outdoor class.

1.2 Statement of the problem

Vocabulary teaching plays a substantial role in English curriculum. One of the famous linguists Wilkins (1987) once said that, ��Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed.�� It can be said that a good understanding of vocabulary acquisition strategies contributes immensely to the efficiency of vocabulary learning, which in turn, will be conducive to the learning of grammatical items and to the development of a learner��s overall listening, reading, and speaking proficiency.

Therefore, we have no reason to ignore the indispensable position of vocabulary in our English teaching. However, teachers teach the literary meaning of most words and English learners memorize them automatically. What��s more, they still cannot use those words appropriately and efficiently after their memorization. On the other hand, English teachers have to face normally 60 or more students in the classroom because of the limited faculties and teaching resources. Therefore, it is very difficult for an English teacher to take care of each student in the classroom.

Educators have realized the importance of shifting from the teacher-centered approach to the student- centered one, and the improvement of teaching to an increased concern for how learners deal with their learning tasks in foreign language. It can be seen from English Curriculum Standard issued by the Ministry of Education in 2011. The new curriculum��s emphasis is on instruction of learning strategy and development of autonomous learning ability. The English Curriculum Standard (2011) states, ��In the implement process of English curriculum, helping students use learning strategy effectively can not only be good for holding learning direction and adopting scientific approaches to improve learning efficiency, but also conduce to develop autonomous learning ability that establishes solid foundation for life-long sustainable learning��.

If students are explicitly trained to become more aware of language learning strategies, they will be more autonomous. Metacognitive strategies are essential to facilitate learners�� second language learning process. To solve this problem, this article tries to work out the best way to help student build their vocabulary.

1.3 The aim of the study

The aims of this study are (1) to explore the relationship between metacognitive strategies training and vocabulary learning in order to help English teachers reform vocabulary teaching and improve students�� vocabulary proficiency. (2) to strengthen students�� awareness of strategy using so that they can monitor their own learning process and develop autonomous learning ability.

1.4 Significance of the study

Abundant studies have demonstrated the great effect exerted by metacognitive strategies both in reading (Chen Xiangyang and Dai Ji, 2007 ) and listening (Yang Jiading, 2003; He Zujia, 2005 ). However, few researches have been available to explore the learning of vocabulary. Though the past decade has witnessed a host of studies on vocabulary learning strategies both at home and abroad (Song Wei, 2007; Schmitt, N.& MaCarthy, 2002), nevertheless, these studies can hardly meet our increasing demands. On the one hand, most of the researches in vocabulary have focused on the non-English majors in college and vocational schools, much less on junior middle school students. On the other hand, metacognitive strategy on writing and reading are caught more attention than vocabulary. Consequently, their findings should be considered as more appropriate for students with advanced or at least intermediate level of English proficiency in China, very few researches in this area has been made for students from Junior High School.

Although previous research has made great contributions to the study of vocabulary learning strategies, little study has been made on metacognitive strategies and vocabulary learning, and their intersection---vocabulary learning metacognitive strategies at home and abroad, which makes this thesis significant as an attempt to fill the gap to some extent.

Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 Definition and Classification of language learning strategies

2.1.1 Definitions of Language Learning Strategies

There are different opinions about the definition of language learning strategies. Different researchers define it from different point of view.

Rubin (1987) proposes the definition of language learning strategies that learning strategies are strategies that contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affects learning directly.

Oxford (1990) defines language-learning strategies as behaviors, or actions that learners use to make language learning more successful, self-directed and enjoyable.

Wen Qiufang (2003) thinks that learning strategies are the measures that students adopt to improve the effectiveness of learning. This definition emphases two points, first, the aim of using strategy is to enhance learning result, and second, the strategy using is related to learners�� behavior instead of thinking.

2.1.2 Classifications of Language Learning Strategies

Cohen (2000) classified learning strategies into two groups that is second language learning strategies and use strategies. The first one includes five sub-strategies, such as identifying the material for learning, distinguishing it from other material, grouping it for easier learning, repeatedly engaging oneself in contact with the material, remembering it with efforts. There are four sub-strategies in the second group, including retrieval strategies, rehearsal strategies, cover strategies, communication strategies.

Wen Qiufang (2003) divides the language learning strategies into two groups as Language learning strategies and management strategies. The detailed classification is shown in Table2.1.

Table2.1 Wen Qiufang��s (2003) Classification of Learning Strategies

Learning Strategiesongue-avoidance strategies.

2.2 Research on vocabulary learning strategies abroad and at home

2.2.1 Research on vocabulary learning strategies abroad

There are four phases of studies on vocabulary learning strategies in foreign countries. The first phase is called ��Former Limited-Vocabulary Period�� which was before 1930s. During this phase, people began to know vocabulary, but had an ambiguous understanding in vocabulary teaching. The second phase ��Limited Vocabulary Period�� was before 1930s -1960s. The principle used in this phase is ��To express the clearest idea with the minimal words��. The first two phases focus on the teaching procedures, teaching environment and teaching methods rather than the learners�� behaviors. The arisen period of vocabulary study on foreign language was in the third phase. The representational saying is ��Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed.�� by Wilkins (1987). People came to know the importance of vocabulary learning, and began to research on vocabulary learning strategies in different ways. The fourth phase is the development of study on vocabulary learning. Since 1980s, vocabulary-learning strategy has caught much attention and many linguists have studied on it and thus written theses. For example, Nation (2004) believes that studying the development of vocabulary systematically can facilitate vocabulary teaching. Knight (1994) researches on 112 sophomore about vocabulary learning situation in reading. He believes that guessing meanings when reading enables students to master a great number of words.

Luppeseu & Day (1993) study 293 Japanese who learn English as a second language, stating the advantages of dictionary. Coady & Huckin (2001) introduce the method ��Key word�� using in second language teaching. Allen (2002) thinks that students are able to learn vocabulary best in class when they are in need of vocabulary. She divides the learners into three grades such as elementary, intermediate and advanced ones according to her several-year teaching experience, providing abundant examples and advice on classroom activities and vocabulary teaching skills.

2.2.2 Research on vocabulary learning strategies at home

Zhang Jiying (2007) introduces four parts in the book The teaching and research of English lexis. For instance, the present situation of vocabulary learning and teaching; the relationship between vocabulary and listening, speaking, reading , writing and translating; vocabulary learning strategy and teaching method; the cultural differences in English vocabulary teaching.

In chapter five of the book English Teaching Methodology, Xiao Liquan (2006) states vocabulary teaching aim, teaching content and teaching technique. It also explains vocabulary learning and memorizing ways.

In chapter six of the book Techniques in English Teaching, Wang Duqin (2002) discusses many sorts of vocabulary teaching techniques, including teaching content, teaching principle and so on, showing four stages such as presentation, application and evaluation.

Lu Qiaoling (2001), Chen Aimei (2002), Yu Chunmei (2005) teach vocabulary in context, which is one of the most effective ways in learning English vocabulary. However, they only describe and prove the theory abroad, without taking an empirical study on learning vocabulary in context.

Searching CNKI for papers and periodicals on vocabulary teaching techniques from 2000 to 2012, we can sum up in three aspects. First, the concept, category and function of vocabulary in English teaching; the concept and category of learning strategy lead to the concept and category of vocabulary learning strategy. Second, how to cultivate students vocabulary learning strategy; Most researchers talk about developing students�� metacognitive strategy, cognitive strategy and affective strategy; There are some researchers proving the effectiveness of vocabulary teaching strategy using context and block. Third, it is necessary to combine the cultivation of vocabulary learning strategy and learners�� interests, learning aim, autonomous ability and so on.

2.3 Definition and components of metacognition

The American psychologist Flavell first developed the term of metacognition. He defines metacognition as ��knowledge that takes its object or regulates any aspect of any cognitive behavior�� and he states that metacognition involves ��active monitoring and consequent regulation and orchestration of cognitive process to achieve cognitive goals�� (Flavell, 1976). In 1979, he has defined it as an individual��s turning inwards to reflect on his cognitive processes with its core meaning ��cognition about cognition��.

Besides Flavell, there are many other researchers defining metacognition such as Bruner, Brown and so on. The definition of metacognition given by Bruner is ��metacognition is the reflection upon or monitoring of those acts that have to do with achieving, storing, retrieving or using information.�� (1985:603). Brown has viewed metacognition as the ��understanding of knowledge, and understanding that can be reflected in either effective use or overt description of the knowledge in question�� (1987:65). According to Wittrock (1990), the term metacognition refers to the awareness and control of one��s thought process. Metacognition means ��knowledge of one��s cognitive process related to learning and cognitive processes of others�� in O��Mally and Chamot��s view (1990:230). Weinstern and Mayer (1991:45) describes metacognition as ��the individuals�� knowledge about their cognitive process, as well as their abilities to control these processes by planning, implementing, monitoring and modifying them as a function of learning outcomes and feedback��.

To sum up, metacognition is the learner��s self-awareness and self-control in cognitive activities and it��s the ��cognition about cognition��.

About the components of metacognition, Flavell (1979) proposes three different kinds of metacognition: beliefs about universal truths and self-concept, called person knowledge; knowledge of the general process and nature of language learning, i.e. task knowledge; and our perceptions of the use and usefulness of certain strategies, strategic knowledge. As a whole, the following framework will show us the components of metacognition:

Table 2.2 The components of metacognition

2.4 Definition and Classification of Metacognitive Strategies

To employ the theory of metacognition in learning or as a measure to study is metacognitive strategy. Wenden (1999) views cognitive strategies as general skills including planning, monitoring, evaluating, through which learners manage, direct, regulate, and guide their learning. Cohen (2000) states metacognitive strategies as ��deal with pre-assessment and pre-planning, on-line planning and evaluation, and post-evaluation of language learning activities and language use events��. Activities such as planning how to approach a learning task, monitoring comprehension, and evaluating progress are metacognitive in nature.

Anyhow, the definition made by O��Malley and Chamot are more comparatively comprehensive: ��Metacognitive strategy involves executive processes in planning for learning, monitoring one��s comprehension and production, and evaluating how well one has achieved a learning objective, and they are higher order executive skills that entail planning for, monitoring or evaluating the success of a learning activity�� (1990:44).

Oxford (1990) divides metacognitive strategies into three groups showed as follows:

Table 2.3 Categories of metacognitive strategies by Oxford

The comparatively typical taxonomies of metacognitive strategies are made by O��Malley and Chamot. According to O��Malley and Chamot (2001), metacognitive strategies are classified into three groups: planning, monitoring and evaluation. In addition, planning is further divided into five categories. They are listed as follows:

Table 2.4 Categories of metacognitive strategies by O��Malley and Chamot

Metacognitive Strategies

The present study is mainly conducted on this classification. The training covers three parts including self-planning, self-monitoring and self-evaluation.

2.5 Metacognitive Strategies on Vocabulary

2.5.1 Metacognitive Strategies on learning process

Wen Qiufang (1996) first talked about the monitoring function of metacognitive strategy in the discussion of English learning methods. Zheng Min (2002) raised a new and constructive theory frame for learning strategy, and proved the importance of metacognitive strategy. Liu Shaolong and Xiao Shanxiang (2002) probed into the instructive function and practical significance of metacognition in language learning. Yang Wenying (2002) came up with an idea of opening a course about metacognition training in college syllabus after analyzing the questions found in a questionnaire about English learning. She proved the relationship between metacognition and autonomy ability using the research findings of cognitive psychology and applied linguistics. Ren Qingmei (2003) found that metacognition is closely related with autonomy learning, and introduced the steps and methods of cultivating learners�� metacognition and autonomy ability in English teaching. Hou Zhixia (2004) conducted an empirical research on freshman��s English learning strategy, exploring the relationship between sex, achievement and the use of English learning strategy. She stressed that the linking phrase of learners�� learning strategy should be concerned. Ji Kangli (2005) and Li Lan (2005) report respectively the results of metacognitive training, proving the helpfulness in developing students�� independent thinking ability and autonomy learning. Hu Yang and Zhang Weiming (2006) used a questionnaire to investigate how the non-English majors use metacognitive strategy. They thought that most foreign language learners need class-training to improve the ability of using metacognitive strategy. Zhou Huifang (2010) discusses the function of metacognition, the development of the metacognive awareness and the application of metacognitive strategies in second language acquisition. The research states that to use metacognitive strategy can strengthen the intake of language knowledge and skills.

2.5.2 Metacognitive Strategies on Vocabulary

The research into metacognitive strategy in China is mainly based on the theory from foreign countries, thinking and developing it or conducting empirical research. In theory, Chen Weihong (2004) probes into how to implement metacognitive strategy in learners�� vocabulary learning in order to cultivate students�� autonomy learning ability. Wang Lin (2009) introduces metacognitive strategy and proposes some advice on how to develop students�� metacognition for college English vocabulary teaching. Yang Qiuying (2010) describes the necessity and ways of making use of metacognitive strategy in college English vocabulary teaching associated with teaching experience. Dong Hui (2010) specifies the steps of metacognition training, stating that to enrich college students�� metacognitive knowledge is helpful to improve their ability of using metacognitive strategy in vocabulary learning.

In empirical research into vocabulary learning strategy, there are not only investigations but also interventions. Wu Xia and Wang Qiang (1998) makes a research into vocabulary learning strategy of non-English major sophomores, finding that Chinese students are able to use different kinds of strategies to learn English vocabulary including metacognitive and cognitive strategy. The study also shows that vocabulary achievements have a direct relationship with learning strategy, and that excellent students who can exercise many kinds of learning strategies to direct their own learning are likely to use context to guess words, which is different from not good students who are likely to learn words by rote. Some more researches on strategy training in recent years are showed in Table 2.4.

Table 2.5 Empirical Studies of metacognitive strategies training on vocabulary

Researcher

*questionnaires

oral interviews

English vocabulary size tests

*10-week metacognitive strategies training

*non-English college students

*15-week metacognitive strategies training

*interview, learning log, test

*16-week metacognitive strategies training *questionnaire

oral interviews

*college students

*questionnaire, interview, test

*cognitive and metacognitive strategy training

* non-English majors

*questionnaire, interview, test

*16 weeks metacognitive strategies training

2.6 The need for Strategy Training

��English is a compulsory course in junior high schools at present education system. However, it is still test-oriented in most parts of China. The teachers in junior high school usually ask students to learn vocabulary lists in which words are isolated from the context. In order to get a good mark in each exam, students spend most time in memorizing a large number of words and phrases after class. Actually, English vocabulary learning frustrates most students, and thus they take it as a tedious toil.

��Sanaoui (1995) claims that there are two models to learn English vocabulary. One is systematic approach, and the other is unsystematic approach. In the former one, students are more organized and independent. They can use extensive records of lexical items and review words more often. But in the latter one, students rely on the teacher. Without the teacher��s help, they can not read or recite any words. They don��t take any notes of lexical items and seldom review words after class.

��In order to teach students to learn vocabulary systematically, we teachers need to train them in metacognitive awareness first. As Carrell (1996) suggests, teachers need to be explicit about what the strategies are, how, when and why it might be used, and how to evaluate its effectiveness. Under the English Curriculum Standard (2011), fostering students�� autonomous learning ability is significant. The obtaining of the ability of autonomous learning is the foundation and mainstay of a learner��s future continual development. As it��s known to all, developing students�� strategy awareness is useful for autonomous learning.

�� The previous researches on vocabulary learning and strategy training show that vocabulary strategy needs to be consciously developed and trained systematically. It can not be born or naturally formed. Through training, the learning process will be more effective and the learning conditions will be even better. O��Malley concluded: ��students without metacognitive approaches are essentially learners without direction and ability to review their progress, accomplishments and future learning directions�� (Reinders, 2000:11).

��We teachers and students should keep in mind that learning strategies are teachable and metacognitive strategies training should be carried out earlier than other strategies. `

2.7 Models of Metacognitive Strategy Training

�� Oxford (1990) put forward a useful sequence that is rather descriptive of the various strategies, and the strategies could be used for a broad range of learning tasks. The sequence is like this: (1) complete a language activity without any strategies; (2) discuss and choose suitable strategies; (3) practice strategies with language tasks; (4) suggest and demonstrate the other beneficial strategies; (5) evaluate the strategies used in the concrete contexts.

��Chamot & O��Malley (1994) raised a project called Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA). It provides a useful framework for direct language learning strategies instruction. The sequence of instruction in CALLA approach includes five steps like introducing, teaching, practicing, evaluating, and applying strategies to learning tasks.

��Both of the two kinds of training models focus on the use and value of strategies. They encourage students to use strategies consciously and transfer to other contexts actively. Above all, the two models give them the chance to monitor their performance and evaluate the effectiveness of the strategies they are using.

��Based on the two models, this study adopts three steps for metacognitive strategies training, including preparation, in-class activities (to set up aims, to present and to practice) and reflection.

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Chapter 3 Application of metacognitive strategies in English class

�� In summary, vocabulary learning is closely related with metacognitive strategies. Therefore, English teachers should be further aware of metacognitive knowledge. In the process of vocabulary teaching, teachers must try their best to acquaint students with learners�� learning intention and factors that can affect metacognitive process. Furthermore, it is necessary to help them establish metacognitive system which is conducive to improve vocabulary learning ability, and to cultivate the ability of using metacognitive strategies skillfully.

Many researchers hold that metacognitive strategies training is an effective way to self-improvement. The author intents to prove that to combine metacognitive strategies with vocabulary learning is able to enhance learners�� autonomy.

3. 1. Metacognitive knowledge

Metacognition is the learner��s knowledge of his own cognitive processes. To enhance learners�� metacognitive knowledge can make them achieve better results in vocabulary learning. First, English teachers need to teach students many kinds of vocabulary learning strategies and skills. Then, we ask students to write down a list of the strategies that they already used before, or communicate with other learners what skills they like. Finally, to encourage them to summarize on which strategies they used in all the learning activities. It can be seen that the method is of great help to increase learners metacognitive awareness, thus to consolidate the effect of metacognitive strategies training.

3. 2. metacognitive strategies training content

In the first vocabulary class, English teachers undertake the task of instructing students to learn metacognitive strategies. I divide the whole learning process into three stages, e.g. planning, monitoring and evaluating. At the beginning of vocabulary review, I explained to students the overall demands and phase demands of vocabulary teaching, including learning objectives, contents, materials, time schedule and anticipated results. Through discussion with my colleagues, we made a vocabulary learning plan for the whole term (Table 3.1). Of course, students are allowed to adjust the general targets according to their own need. In order to make students monitor the learning process, teachers should remind them to use strategies and help them sum up learning experience by concerning and checking their vocabulary learning progress. Our expectation is students learn to make learning plans, monitor learning process and evaluate learning results. In conclusion, we would like to teach them to keep a definite phrasal aim in mind, to find out the problems, to reflect the cause of unsuccessful learning and then ask for help, and to make summary of successful learning.

Table 3.1 Vocabulary Learning Plan for Grade Two

Time schedule

(1) Self-planning

Setting goals may impel students to take more responsibility to engage in the learning process. Setting goals by students themselves may also motivate them to search for strategies to accomplish their goals. If they find that they can not reach the goals, they may change their behavior and reconsider the methods. Therefore, self-planning is utmost important in vocabulary learning process. However, learners need to be trained on how to set goals. First, the teacher should help them analyze the teaching syllabus in comparison with their own need. Individual differences really exist when they come to set short-term goals, so each student needs to define his own goal according to the curriculum requirement and his weakness. Every subject in experimental group was required to make out a practical plan according to the following questions:

How many words will you get in a day/ a week/ a month?

How many words that you have learned will you review?

What kind of learning strategies would you choose to learn and consolidate words?

The teacher chooses some students to share their plans, and give comments and suggestions on them in order to prevent that their goals are too high or too low. Only when they set appropriate goals by themselves can they select suitable learning strategies and improve their vocabulary competence more efficiently. The learning plan for them to monitor is provided below (Table 3.2):

Table 3.2 Monitoring form for learning plan

Monitoring form for learning plan in ______ week

Name:___________

1. The words and phrases that I plan to remember this week are________________

2. The words and phrases that I have remembered this week are _______________

By analyzing the first two weeks, I realized that some goals could not be reached, but to the opposite, some were overfulfilled. For example, some students plan to remember 35 words and phrases, but finally they only finished 25, so the goal is too high for them to accomplish. On the other hand, some students only planned to master 20 and of course they achieve it easily. That is to say, they underestimate themselves and they need to develop their potential. Two weeks later, I was really satisfied with their adjustment. 25 words and phrases that they plan to remember are suitable for students in experimental class. Therefore, through making plans and monitoring, they could achieve the goal better. At the same time, they learn how to make a plan and when to adjust it. In this case, self-planning can strengthen the ability of self-management.

(2)Self-monitoring

Monitoring is an important metacognitive strategies with which students can take charge of their ongoing learning and take actions to deal with learning problems. There are two aspects in self-monitoring: one is to monitor the implementation of the vocabulary plan, the other is to monitor the strategies adopted in order to accomplish the goal. In order to complete the objectives successfully, the students need constantly to check their learning process and make adjustment accordingly. Students should be reminded that once they have begun to use the specific strategies, they need to check periodically whether or not those strategies are effective and used as planned. To monitor their use of strategies, they should check to see if the specific one is effective and if not, modify their strategy.

����In this study, the teacher asked the students to monitor each other��s vocabulary learning in group and thus a reciprocal learning can take place. The students are asked to record in the Monitoring form (Table 3.3) what words were difficult to remember and what vocabulary strategies were employed. In this case, learners can develop their independence in their language learning, monitor their own process, plan sequences of actions and regulate their learning behavior instead of depending on the teacher for everything in the learning process. In conclusion, self-monitoring can promote learners�� self-reliance and allow teachers to spend more time on instructional tasks.

Table 3.3 Monitoring form for used strategies

Monitoring form for used strategies

Name:___________

1. In Unit____Topic______, the difficult words and phrases are: _______________

2. In order to master them, the strategies that I adopted are:___________________

3. Self-assessment: 1�� 2�� 3�� 4�� 5��

4. Group-assessment: 1�� 2�� 3�� 4�� 5��

(3) Self-evaluation

The purpose of this phase is to provide opportunities for learners to evaluate the effectiveness of their own performance in learning. Evaluation is an important key to increasing motivation, since it is retrospective for the past learning and prospective for future action in further learning. In traditional teaching environment, test scores and teachers�� comments are used to evaluate learners. According to modern teaching theory, the two ways are not enough to evaluate learning. In fact, learners should be capable of evaluating their learning process by themselves. Because through self-evaluation, they can locate their own strengths and weaknesses in vocabulary learning, modify learning strategies consciously and set up new goals. With metacognitive knowledge, they may become more active in later period of learning, since they have the ultimate responsibility for their learning.

Activities used to develop the students�� evaluation insights include self-questioning, group evaluation and teacher assessment. The teacher instructs students to ask themselves in the following four aspects:

What goals have I set? Have I accomplished my learning plan?

What vocabulary strategies have I employed?

Did the strategies work effectively to improve my vocabulary competence?

What areas do I need to improve in order to facilitate my learning in the next cycle?

Besides self-questioning, the teacher also evaluated them by vocabulary test or competition. In the test, there are not only traditional way����dictation and translation, but also multiple choice, word transformation, word conversion and so on. The various exercises can make students avoid memorizing Chinese meaning and spelling as the exclusive purpose. Instead, they will realize that being able to use words is the ultimate purpose in language learning. After every test or competition, the teacher made them sum up for the past learning, including successful experience and failure. By analyzing and thinking, they may search for suitable strategies to better adjust themselves to learning.

3.3 Practical use of metacognitive strategies in English class

As the organizer and facilitator in English class, how can teachers instruct students to learn to self-plan, self-monitor and self-evaluate? The author has its own way, following is the example taken from unit 6 in Ren��ai Project English book (Grade 8, Term 2). The teaching model adopted here is preparation, in-class activities and reflection. The Learning Guide is handed out to each student before class.

����1. Preparation

Before class, students�� task is to find out the important words and phrases that will be learned in Unit 6 Topic 3, and to do the exercises in Learning Guide. This stage is to let the students understand the vocabulary objectives of Unit 6 Topic 3 and then make a relevant plan to master learning strategy.

����2. In-class Activities

Activity 1: To set up aims

First, I let students discuss the important words and phrases in group, and the leader of one group write their answer on the blackboard. The other groups are allowed to add up. The following is the result of the whole class:

Words

����Activity 2: To present

����This step is to test students how they learn before this class. Students do not know this part beforehand. I show eight pictures with eight sentences on the screen, and ask the students to fill the missing words quickly. At last, I tell them all the answers. The full mark is eight, that is to say each sentence is one point. They mark for themselves, and I collect all their results.

E.g. 1. There are many passengers on the bus.

2. The policeman is working on the street.

3. It warns us to be more careful.

4. However, his path to success was not smooth.

5. I think traffic in Beijing is crazy.

6. When I first arrived, I was afraid of riding my bike anywhere.

7. He trained hard and led the American team to win the Tour de France.

8. Bicycle accidents can also bring us sadness and death.

From this activity, students know what they have memorized and what they still need to consolidate. This stage is actually a self-evaluation. The above eight words are new knowledge and not easy for them to master, especially words in sentence 3, 4 and 7. I put the words into the simple sentences and matched with splendid pictures, which can not only arouse students�� interest but also give them a deep impression. In this way, we develop students�� strategies of selective attention and association.

Activity 3: To practice

There are four kinds of exercises in this stage. Students are asked to finish them before class, and check with each other in class.

Exercise 1 Word translation

slow adj. ����� ���� v. ����

fine v. ��ij�˴��Է��� ���� n. ����

lead n. Ǧ��о ���� v. �쵼

time n. ʱ�� ���� v. ��¼���������ʱ��

turn v. ת�� ���� n. ���䣻����

Exercise 2 Word transformation

possible ���ܵ� adj.���� ������adj. impossible

die ���� v. ���� ���� n. death

certainly ��Ȼ adv. ���� ��Ȼ adj. certain

finally ��� adv. ���� ���� adj. final

successfully �ɹ��� adv. ���� �ɹ���adj. successful ���� �ɹ� n. success

Exercise 3 Sentence making

1. Lance Armstrong/ in May of 1998/ ����/ began

In May of 1998, Lance Armstrong began to make a comeback.

2. you/ ����/ at the crossing/ your car

You have to slow down your car at the crossing.

3. Mr. Green/ for speeding/ ������/ yesterday

Mr. Green got a fine for speeding yesterday.

4. cause/ does not/ cycling/ ������Ⱦ

Cycling does not cause air pollution.

5. it is/ impolite/ �ڹ���������̵/ to

It is impolite to spit in public.

6. should/ ����/ talking about/ his father/ you

You should avoid talking about his father.

7. in the morning/ her son/ to run/ often/ ����/ the mother

The mother often leads her son to run in the morning.

The way to learn English is various, so we teachers should encourage them to use many kinds of methods. Among the above three exercises, each one has its own disadvantages. For Exercise 1, the same English word has different meanings because of different parts of speech. Students need to think about the related meanings of a new word. With the application of association strategy, students are able to review the old knowledge and make the knowledge systematical. Exercise 2 enables students to know word transformation. After doing this kind of exercise, the spelling of two or more related words will remain fresh in their memory. Word formation strategy can of course enlarge their vocabulary size. The seven phrases in Exercise 3 are all important phrases in Topic 3. Making sentence using given words is not so difficult for Grade Eight students. They are asked to translate the phrase given in Chinese, then put it in a correct order with other English words. This exercise uses the strategy of practice and consolidation.

Exercise 4 Story making

The students make up a story using the words and expressions chosen from the vocabulary given by the teacher. In the class, students are asked to read out their works and the other students point out which words and expressions have been used.

E.g. Jim is crazy about riding bikes. One day, he rode too fast to slow down his bike in a sharp turn. As a result, he rushed to a woman. Luckily, the woman wasn��t hurt badly. She warned him not to ride on the left-hand side of the street once again.

Please choose the following suitable words and phrases to make a story. The story should be fair and reasonable. The more words and expressions you use, the better story it will be.

passenger/ crazy/ anywhere/ impossible/ death/ slow/ rush to/ policeman/ warn/ lead/ smooth/ success/ successful/ result/ air pollution/ a sharp turn/ slow down/ run into/ avoid doing sth./ get a fine/ warn sb. to do sth./ on the left-hand side of��/ make a comeback/ lead sb. to do sth./ once again

From the above four kinds of exercises, it can be seen that different vocabulary learning strategies should be adopted in order to learn English well. After training, they know how to make vocabulary learning plan and choose effective strategies in their later learning period.

3. Reflection

A quiz (see attachment) is designed by the teacher in order to check the students how they review in this class. In the quiz there are four kinds of exercises, e.g. multiple choice, translation, sentence conversion and explanation. The sheet of exam paper will be handed out at the end of the lesson. The students need to finish it in the class and hand in the paper. After class, students are asked to write down a reflection, including the following content:

What vocabulary did I master?

What kind of strategies did I use? How effective are the strategies?

Did I monitor the learning process effectively?

�� The reflection is a great help for learning the next lesson, because students will change the improper strategies and summarize the better ways.

Chapter 4 Methodology

The chapter mainly deals with the research design of this experiment. It first introduces research questions, and then specifies the subjects and instruments. At last, it describes in detail the experimental procedures and procedures for data collection and analysis.

4.1 Research Questions

�� (1) Can the training of metacognitive strategies improve the students�� vocabulary proficiency?

(2) Can metacognitive strategies training increase the awareness of students�� use of self-monitoring strategy?

4.2 Subjects

The subjects in this research are from two classes in a certain middle school in Heyuan City. They are in Grade Two for the second term. They are aged from 15 to 17. The average age of the subjects is 16. They have been studying English for at least 5 years. The two classes are both 35 students. The Experimental Class consists of 19 boys and 16 girls, and the Control Class consists of 18 boys and 17 girls. The author has taught them since they attended middle school. That means they have been taught in the same way for a year up till now. Both the two classes have seven English lessons every week and they use the same textbook����Project English by Beijing Education Press.

Table 4.1 The distribution of the subjects

Experimental Group

4.3 Research Instruments

The instruments used in this study are: a vocabulary pre-test, a vocabulary post-test, interviews, checklist and learning logs.

4. 3.1 Vocabulary tests

Vocabulary tests are composed of pre-test and post-test. Both tests were taken to measure the subjects�� vocabulary proficiency. They were adopted from the authoritative sources. The content of the tests is based on the English Curriculum Standard. The items of the tests are selected from two exercise books edited by Ren��ai Educational Research Institution and exam papers designed by Regional Education Department. The test employed were the vocabulary level from 900 to 1200.

Before the training, a vocabulary pre-test is given to the students in order to find out whether there is any difference between the experimental group and control group. The author needs to make sure that the two classes are the same in terms of vocabulary proficiency. Learning a word involves four aspects: form of the word (pronunciation and spelling); grammatical properties (grammatical category of the words, its possible and impossible structure); lexical properties (word combinations and appropriateness); meaning (general meaning and specific meaning). Therefore, there are four parts in the test paper. For the first part, the students are asked to write 15 items of Chinese-English translation. 10 items of multiple choice are in the second part. In the third part, they need to paraphrase 5 items of phrase. The fourth part is word filling including word formation, part of speech, singular or plural form of nouns and verb tense. All the words and phrases are from the students�� course book. In order to ensure the validity and reliability of the test, the vocabulary items in the test are selected according to New Curriculum Standard and authoritative department.

After the training, a vocabulary post-test is given to both the experimental group and the control group. It is used to test the effectiveness of metacognitive strategies training on the experimental class. The items in the test are chosen from the same method of the pre-test. The results in the two groups are compared by using Independent Sample T Test in SPSS 8.0.

4.3.2 Interview

Before the training, the teacher interviews some students to be familiar with their vocabulary learning status. After the training, an oral interview is carried out in order to find out whether metacognitive strategies training can increase the awareness of students�� use of self-monitoring strategy. Three students in each rank are selected. They represented the students of high-proficiency learners, intermediate-proficiency learners and low-proficiency learners. Some open-ended questions as following were asked:

Do you often check whether the goals that you��ve set before are appropriate?

Do you summarize and review the vocabulary you have learned in time?

��Do you check your vocabulary learning methods in a regular time? If the methods are not effective, will you think about using other ways?

Do you analyze the cause of wrong spelling and using mistakes?

Do you check whether there are inaccurate words before handing in your homework?

All the questions in the interview are asked and answered in the subjects�� native language so that they can express their ideas freely and amply.

4.3.3 Checklist and learning logs

In order to make the training more effective, the teacher gives out a checklist to each student every three weeks. In the checklist there are many kinds of vocabulary learning strategies that they need to mark. The distribution of metacognitive strategies is shown in Table 4.2. Through marking checklist, the students can monitor their own learning process and the teacher can offer help for them by observing their performance.

Table 4.2 Distribution of metacognitive strategies checklist

Metacognitive Strategies

Learning log is another useful tool to supervise the progress of the training. The subjects from the experimental class are asked to write learning logs every two weeks at least. Information obtained from the learning logs helps the teacher know as much as possible about the learners, which in turn benefits the training. The content of the learning logs should include the following three aspects:

What do you do to learn vocabulary?

How long do you spend in learning vocabulary?

What��s your change in vocabulary learning, including changes in psychology, attitude and learning strategies?

What problems do you meet when you use the vocabulary learning strategies?

4.4 Training procedures

The experiment course lasts for 10 weeks (45 minutes a day, 5 days a week). Both the experimental class and control class follow the syllabus of their textbook, Ren��ai Project English book.

The control class is taught in the traditional way, which includes reading by following the teacher, the teacher explaining, students reciting words and testing students by dictation or quiz. Only the experimental class receives explicit instruction on metacognitive strategies as mentioned in Chapter Three. First, the teacher gave the pre-test to both classes. Then each subject in experimental class was asked to make out a practical plan at the beginning of the experiment. Next, the teacher familiarized the students with each metacognitive strategy through explanation and modeling. The metacognitive strategy instruction was reinforced through in-class activities and a quiz in every lesson.

After two weeks of training, the teacher would instruct them to adjust their plan if they overestimated or underestimated themselves. The subjects need to monitor each other��s vocabulary learning, and record something in a Monitoring Form after finishing a topic. Every week, students were asked to sum up the words learned in this week in a vocabulary book, and hand it in to the teacher. To help evaluate their learning, the teacher provided some questions for them to reflect. At the same time, they are asked to do checklist and learning logs.

At the end of the training some students of the experimental group were interviewed. Finally, the post-test was given to both classes after training. The scores of the test computed and analyzed.

4.5 Data collection and analysis

This study mainly involves two variables: metacognitive strategies (independent variable) and vocabulary proficiency (dependent variable). Data about these variables are collected as follows:

Before the training, both the experimental group and control group took the vocabulary pre-test. They were asked to do the test within 30 minutes. In order to get the most valid response and the actual learning performance, students were told to answer as honestly and carefully as possible. Students were told the data would be used for research only. Then all the papers were collected and coded for analysis. Data collected from interviews are used to provide profitable insights for the qualitative analysis of the research.

4.5.1 Results of the independent-samples T test on the vocabulary tests

Before the training, the teacher arranged a test for both the experimental group and the control group and analyzed the data by SPSS 8.0 to examine the discrepancies of their performance between the two classes. From Table 4.3, the mean score of the experimental group is 64.88 while that of the control group is the same. The results also show that students in both classes have no any significant difference (p=1.000> 0.05) in basic vocabulary knowledge. In the study, they start with the same qualification, which will make the comparison with post-test more effective and authentic.

Table 4.3 Results of the Independent-samples T Test in Vocabulary Pre-test

Group

Table 4.4 Results of the Independent-samples T Test in Vocabulary Post-test

Group

4.5.2 Results of the paired samples T test on the vocabulary tests

In order to find out the effectiveness of metacognitive strategy training, a paired samples T test was conducted. It is used to examine the difference between pre-test and post-test in both groups respectively. It means to test one group with two tests. The result of Table 4 indicates that there exists significant difference (p=0.000<0.001) between the pre-test and post-test in the experimental group. From Table 3, there is also significant difference (p=0.007<0.05) between the pre-test and post-test in the control group.

Table 3 Results of the Paired Samples T Test on control group

Pair 1

Table 4 Results of the Paired Samples T Test on experimental group

Pair 1

The reason why there was significant difference between the experimental group and the control group is that the experimental group received extra metacognitive instruction while control group only be taught in traditional way. Therefore, the explicit metacognitive strategies training has contributed to the promoting of the students�� vocabulary learning. By now, we can assume that the achievement of such great progress in the experimental group correlates highly with the metacognitive strategies training. metacognitive strategies training is efficient to improve students�� vocabulary learning. For the control group, slight improvement was made, yet not reaching the point of experimental group. The small progress in control group is not only attributed to the students�� interest and confidence in learning English vocabulary, but also the students�� efforts in learning vocabulary well. This reflects that traditional teaching method can improve students�� English proficiency slightly, but not greatly.

4.5.3 Qualitative data analysis

In order to explore whether the metacognitive strategies training enhances the students�� awareness of monitoring strategy use, checklist and oral interview were employed in this research. By analyzing the checklist, we find that before the training most students don��t make a plan, they can��t monitor their learning and never evaluate learning result. Only a few students had apparent awareness of strategy use. During the training, the result of the checklist shows that they gradually use metacognitive strategies. At the end of the training, we are glad to see that almost all the students tick the items of monitoring strategies listed in the checklist. The students making obvious progress in using monitoring strategies proves that metacognitive strategies training on vocabulary is necessary for junior students to raise their English proficiency. Related interviews were recorded below:

Before training

Student A: I do not review the words in time, but I tried to understand them and then remember them in class. However, if words are too many, I can��t do well in the dictation next day.

Student B: I can��t find out any mistakes when taking exams, so I never go back to recheck vocabulary mistakes.

Student C: I pay little attention to the homework that has been checked by my teacher. It��s a waste of time to correct the mistakes, which my teacher won��t have a look at it again.

Student D: I don��t have my own English vocabulary schedule. I only recite words and do English homework according to my teacher��s instruction.

Student E: I think to learn English is very difficult for I have no vocabulary strategy at all. Therefore, I hope the teacher could give me some advice.

Student F: I know my learning method is not so effective, but I stick to it, since I can not get used to some new methods.

After training

Student A: I review what I learned in English class at night, and do exercise to consolidate. The training is useful for me.

Student B: I am used to checking each item after finishing exams. If there is still time left in the exam, I will go over the word spelling, meaning and usage.

Student C: I concern a lot about my progress in vocabulary learning, so I sum up the mistakes in a notebook and keep it for each exam.

Student D: I have my own vocabulary plan now. Since my English vocabulary size has been enlarged, I like doing English exercises.

Student E: I have my own English vocabulary strategies, but I think they are more systematical after the training.

Student F: Word formation and transformation are good methods to learn English. I know how to choose strategies to learn vocabulary.

In conclusion, the result of checklist and oral interview showed that metacognitive strategies training had positive effect on learners�� awareness of monitoring strategy use. Since the training, students�� autonomous learning ability has been raised a lot. Though whether a certain strategy is effective varies from different strategy users and specific learning tasks, almost all the students benefit a lot from the metacognitive strategies training. The metacognitive strategies training is a necessity for junior students to strengthen their awareness of vocabulary learning strategy.

Chapter 5 Conclusion

5.1 Major findings

���� The major concern of the present study was to explore the effectiveness of explicit metacognitive strategies training on vocabulary learning of the junior students. The previous statistics and analysis yield the following major findings:

���� The first research question is about how to use metacognitive strategies to improve students�� vocabulary learning results. The teacher combines metacognitive strategies with the teaching content, and design a series of class activities and quiz. As it is discussed in Chapter 4, the scores of the post-test are statistically greater than those of pre-test. This indicates that students who received metacognitive strategy instruction achieve positive effect in vocabulary learning. The great gain can also be found in their quiz given by the teacher in each reviewing lesson.

����The students strengthen their awareness of learning strategies evidently. From the forms, checklist and learning log, we come to realize that the students are more familiar with various vocabulary learning strategies. The training makes the students to be a good planner, an excellent monitor and an outstanding evaluator in their vocabulary learning. They learn to overcome their weakness. Especially, their ability of using monitoring strategy improves greatly, and thus better monitors their vocabulary learning process.

����The students enhance a lot their autonomous learning ability. The students become less dependent on the teacher. They begin to think about their learning performance themselves rather than wait for the teacher to help them. Every Monday, they always remember to hand in their vocabulary book and finishing other homework on time. On the morning of Tuesday and Thursday, they are used to recite words and phrases to their group leader. With all kinds of ways, they are making great progress in seeking suitable approaches to promote their vocabulary learning.

5.2 Pedagogical implications of the study

The findings of this study support the research made in abroad and at home on strategy training. It can be asserted that the model used to teach metacognitive strategies is a practical and useful one.

����Firstly, the present study benefits students, for they can use different metacognitive strategies to facilitate their vocabulary learning. The teacher provides guidance for students in their strategy use. With the teacher��s help, students can use metcognitive strategies to diagnose their problems in vocabulary learning. Students can learn to monitor, regulate, evaluate and reflect on their vocabulary learning and to improve their English ability. The training can help them become more responsible for meeting their own objectives. Such objectives can be only achieved when students are trained in strategy use so that they become more independent and effective in their learning. Through conscious and constant practice, they will probably transfer the awareness of metacognitive strategies to other learning tasks such as reading and writing. As a result, students will become strategic, independent and efficient in learning.

����Secondly, the study also benefits vocabulary teaching. The study proves that metacognitive strategy training can be conducted in natural classroom settings with teacher��s proper instruction and modeling. It provides detailed metacognitie strategy instruction processes, including the design of a vocabulary lesson and the teaching procedures for teachers to follow. It makes the training model more applicable to other junior high schools. The procedures and results of the study should be beneficial to the teachers who wish to carry out reforms in English teaching. When they prepare for a lesson, they will combine metacognitive strategies with textbooks and thus design some rational exercises to improve the effectiveness of vocabulary teaching instruction.

5.3 Limitations of the study

Because the author lacks research experience and resources, the present study is merely a tentative one and has its own limitations:

Firstly, a limited sample of 70 subjects in two classes is not large enough to demonstrate vocabulary learning. Secondly, some subjects seems unserious about the study. The result of the forms, checklist, and interview may not be necessarily very informative about learners�� strategy use. Thirdly, the training program in the present study lasts only for 10 weeks, which seemed to be a little shorter. metacognitive strategies training for vocabulary learning should be a long-term educational process. Fourthly, since the study only focus on the nuclear factor, the process of improving metacognitive strategies is far from simple. There is a need for more comprehensive research on a wide range of variables affecting language learning strategies use. Variables such as beliefs, learning style, motivation and attitude that may have a connection with language learning should be studied in the future.

Despite of the restricts of this study, it is hoped that it can offer some guidelines for the future study on the learning strategy training for different language learning tasks and at different language learning stages.

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