Educational Institutions In Twentieth Century Ireland

Published Date: 02 Nov 2017

Name + ID no: Darren O’Neill - 0856452

Course of Study: PGDE (Business) 2012/13

Assignment: How should teachers understand the abuse – physical, emotional and /or sexual – that was prevalent in some educational institutions in twentieth century Ireland?

Module Code: EN5252

Module Title: Education History

Lecturer: John O’Callaghan

Date of Submission: 1st May 2013

Introduction

Child abuse can be physical, emotional and sexual and can take place in any social setting from childcare to schooling. This paper will look at the different mediums of abuse that were prevalent in the twentieth century in Ireland and focus on those which occurred within educational institutions. The paper will aim to outline why understanding the effects of such forms of abuse, both from a physical and psychological perspective is imperative for teachers. Ireland in the twentieth century for the most part was home to an education system that allowed for corporal punishment, a view that physical abuse was a form of motivation as such, in that if student’s performance was not adequate, then punishment should persevere. Does physical abuse remain physical or does it have emotional effects? This remains to be seen. Ireland had also become home to educational system that now is questioned in relation to sexual abuse, which will also need to be addressed.

Defining abuse has proven difficult for many theorists on the matter. The reasoning being as described by Peter Maher is the fact that ‘the child’ from a historical context, is described as a person with qualitatively different needs from the adult. The Child Welfare Information Gateway defines child abuse as "any recent act or failure to act on the part of the parent or caretaker, which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation, or an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm." The problem here is that the definition supplied today may not have existed in the twentieth century; a century where abuse was conveyed in a completely different way yet, describes what the current population believe to have happened.

The Irish Gulag paper written by Arnold Bruce gives a compelling account of what occurred in Ireland during the twentieth century. He describes the period between 1936 to1970 in which 150,000 young children were detained by residential and educational institutions, financed by the department and run by various religious orders. Arnold justifies his use of the word Gulag, formerly used to run penal labour camps in the Soviet Union in describing the way children lived in these institutions. Punishment was excessive; children were deprived of food, medical and psychological care and were often used as slave workers as opposed to receivers of an educational experience.

The Commission to Inquire into Child abuse report, instigated by Bertie Ahern in 1999, caused a furore in the Irish media and made headlines all over the world. Set in place as a reconciliation procedure for those who suffered at the hands of the notorious Irish industrial school system. On 11 May 1999, Ahern said "On behalf of the State and of all citizens of the State, the Government wishes to make a sincere and long overdue apology to the victims of childhood abuse for our collective failure to intervene, to detect their pain, to come to their rescue". Ahern claimed that it was in his power and his heart to apologise to those victims and vowed to create an establishment to provide help and counselling for the victims that suffered this abuse. The gesture was dignified and brave but Bruce describes how the states behaviour since this apology has been solely designed for protection than seek the justice or recompense for the victims.

Physical Abuse

This paper will first look at physical abuse and what teachers should understand with regards what has occurred in the past and the implications it can and has had on students’ lives and attitudes. The corporal punishment in educational institutions was accepted practise in Ireland up until the 1980s. As mentioned in McGuire and O’Cinneide’s paper, the view was that corporal punishment was widely accepted and in that sense, the fact that it is harmful in both the short and long run was ignored. Punishment in schools was a way of teaching values to the students, values such as respect for authority, it was used to maintain discipline and in an overall sense to rear a good citizen. Corporal punishment in the twentieth century was so widely accepted as the norm so much so that the Children’s Act 1908 upheld a caretaker’s right to do so as they saw fit. "Nothing in the Part of the Act shall be construed to take away or affect the right of any parent, teacher or other person….to administer punishment to such child or person" Corporal Punishment was so embedded in the way in which the system works that many a minister thereafter downplayed the idea of abolishment. (Lalor 1998)

The physical abuse that prevailed in the twentieth century in Ireland was wholly and truly accepted as a form of discipline and acted further in the way which values were thought. Corporal punishment was the option of choice for breaches of discipline and neither warning nor minor punishments seemed to exist. When critical voices began to appear in the 1950s the argument was that there is a fine line between physical forms of discipline and physical abuse. They argued that, the point of disciplining students is to teach them the difference between right and wrong and not to make them live in fear as is described in student accounts provided in McGuire and O’Cinneide’s paper, where a student recalls that fear that was instilled into him by a previous educator. The problem remained and still remains today, that physical abuse in any setting and in particular schools in twentieth century Ireland can and did have long term physical and psychological effect on those students affected. Children lived in ‘daily terror’ of being beaten for more than fifty years in State-run institutions where physical abuse was widespread.

The end of corporal punishment was a massive step for the education system in Ireland. Reports showed that children in educational institutions were being severally punished for any significant wrongdoing including absenteeism, failure in lessons, not having books present etc. Bruce describes how children were "punched, kicked, leathered, raped and buggered, forced to eat their own excrement and thrown out in the cold all night." We can refer to specific cases such as Letterfrack where they boys were forced to kneel and their spread out fingers were used as hoes on the farm. (Tyrell 2006).

During the latter part of the 20th century, Christian Brother’s schools were known for ruthless and repeated use of corporal punishment. Artane Industrial school's staff hosted many Brothers who had repeatedly been cautioned for ‘embracing and fondling’ boys. Brothers alleged of rape, beat or bribed their victims into silence. Accused Brothers were regularly excused, lightly warned or, typically, moved to other institutions where they were free to continue abusing children for decades. The Brothers view that corporal punishment was the accepted was increased by the normality of corporal punishment in the home; no one challenged it, therefore it was not viewed it as a crime. Furthermore, the Ryan’s Report states that the existence of corporal punishment was increased by the following "there existed no special training system in Ireland for carers in Industrial Schools’ and that there was no awareness of the emotional needs of children. They had a ‘physical care philosophy." These cases proved that the end was needed and quickly; physical abuse was no longer accepted. Through the constant battle corporal punishment was abolished through legislation in 1982 and made a crime in 1996.

Emotional Abuse

"Emotional abuse is normally to be found in the relationship between a parent/carer and a child rather than in a specific event or pattern of events. It occurs when a child's developmental need for affection, approval, consistency and security are not met. Unless other forms of abuse are present, it is rarely manifested in terms of physical signs or symptoms". (The HSE) Emotional abuse takes a new view on abuse and describes in one sense, the opposite to physical abuse. The current definition describes a situation between an adult and a child but it is clear that a student can also be emotionally abused by peers within the educational setting. Emotional abuse can result from all sorts of nonphysical acts e.g. ridicule, name calling and degradation from both caretakers and peers.

We have all heard the historical saying – "sticks and stones may break my bones but words will never hurt me." This is a saying that couldn’t be further from the truth when it comes to young students and more so, the recipients of emotional abuse. Emotional abuse can have detrimental effect on a student’s mental health; it can lead to a slowdown in social development and subsequently, long term psychological effects. Geraldine Moane describes how little attention is paid to the impact physical and sexual abuse by educators has on the victim emotionally. The secrecy and silence surrounding abuse derives from society’s taboo in that often the fear amongst victims is that the exposure of abuse has the high chance of causing disruptions in families, communities and institutions, therefore victims decide to conceal their emotional distress for the better of others. This can further lead to emotional and mental breakdown which has serious long effects on people’s lives. The Ferns Report acknowledges that "child sexual abuse is, according to studies, linked with depression and post-traumatic stress disorder, emotional and behavioural problems, interpersonal relationship difficulties and suicidal behaviour in both childhood and adult life" (page 19). Feelings of anxiety, difficulty forming relationships and depression were among the negative experiences reported to the Ferns Inquiry by those who had experienced abuse.

The Ferns Report offers witness reports in which witnesses spoke of being belittled and mocked on a daily basis. "Humiliating practices such as underwear inspections and displaying soiled or wet sheets were conducted throughout the Industrial School system. Private matters such as bodily functions and personal hygiene were used as opportunities for degradation and humiliation." Personal and family denigration was widespread. There was constant criticism and verbal abuse and children were led to believe they were insignificant. The pervasiveness of emotional abuse of children in these educational institutions throughout the twentieth century points to damaging cultural attitudes of many who taught in and operated these schools. The overall effect of abuse is hard to measure but these reports give meaning to what has occurred in the twentieth century and what may occur in the future.

Sexual Abuse

Child sexual abuse includes a spectrum of insults, ranging from the extremes of infant rape to the more subtle and insidious denial of love. A child who is brought up to expect nothing other than a hostile environment will learn to live within these constraints and adapt his or her behaviour, so as to attract the minimum of aggressive attentions. Such children learn early to seek to please any adult with whom they may come in contact, as form of self-protection; which may in turn lead to sexual abuse. "Sexual abuse includes inappropriate touching, exposure to indecency and pornography; and being required to participate in sexually stimulating acts" (Maher) It is important for teachers to understand that sexual abuse sets a child apart from other in that they become involved in a situation which may be very confusing; they may feel both guilty about what has occurred and responsible for it. They may often be torn by divided loyalties since the abuse may well take place within an otherwise loving relationship.

As mentioned by Lalor, child sexual abuse in Ireland has only become public in the last twenty years and unfortunately has become more and more topical amongst the public, professionals and politicians in Ireland. The paper by Lalor concludes that child sexual abuse in Ireland is not a recent phenomenon. It is clear that there has been increased awareness on the matter but this does not suggest an increase in incidence. References to child sexual abuse in the Penitentials and the Brehon Law allow us to conclude that child sexual abuse was merely discovered in the late twentieth century rather than commenced in that time period. The absence of reports from the early mid twentieth century give hope to those who believe it to be reality however, the massive increase in reported incidences nowadays suggests that many incidences were left unreported.

A 2,600 page report in 2009 by the Commission on child abuse (also known as the Ryan Report) finalised a nine year investigation into abuse in Ireland. The report outlined that fact that thousands of students had been abused in reform schools and orphanages by priests, nuns and other caretakers in the period stretching from 1930 to 1990. ‘More than 300 people who now live abroad, returned to Ireland to testify at 166 hearings on what happened to them in schools and group homes. In all, more than 1,000 people described rapes, molestation, floggings, scalding’s and other abuse’ With reference to international standards, the closest the United States has come to a similar accounting was a 2004 report commissioned by the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops. It was noted that 5,000 priests, which is more than four percent of all those who had served in the United States since 1950 had been credibly accused of sexual abuse of minors, with more than 12,000 Americans have reported being abused by priests (Jordon, 2009).

The SAVI (Sexual Abuse and Violence in Ireland) Report outlined that 16% of men and 20% of women in Ireland experienced sexual abuse as children. This includes all children and not just those placed in educational institutions, but this immediately gives meaning to the problem this country has encountered. The question stands – Why did it happen? The Ferns Report clearly states that the sexual violation of children by the Catholic clergy is not something that radically appeared within the last twenty years. Sexual abuse is not something that was caused neither by increased secularisation nor by cultural and social change in Ireland. The report claims that "criminal sexual activity by the clergy is as old as the church itself" and its history has been found in the church’s own preaching known as the Canon Law which in itself shows in clear evidence that the head of the institutions at the time were aware of the activity, believed it was wrong and struggled to put an end to it. The Canon Law shows that church law has acknowledged through its existence as a canonical crime.

It remains to be known why the perpetrators sexually abused the children they came in contact with the Ryan’s report having this view on it "Cases of sexual abuse were managed with a view to minimising the risk of public disclosure and consequent damage to the institution and the Congregation. This policy resulted in the protection of the perpetrator" The variance in treatment of lay and religious abusers shows awareness by the Congregational establishments of the seriousness of the offence, yet there was a hesitancy to confront those who offended in this way. The need to protect the reputation of the Congregation and institution was vital. Congregations have declared that knowledge of sexual abuse was not available in society at the time and that it was seen as a moral failing on the part of the Brother or priest. This assertion, however, ignores the fact that sexual abuse of children was a criminal offence.

Going forward, it is important to realise that boys and girls have been victims of sexual abuse in Ireland for an unknown period, and the significant is unknown due to the reluctance of victims to reveal such information. How do we recognise those who have been abused? The most important tool an adult has in the interpretation of a child’s behaviour is knowledge of normal behaviour and development. Teachers in that case are in an ideal position to observe and understand changes that may occur within a child from day to day contact. An abused child is likely to appear withdrawn, relationships with peers will be poor and overall morale will be low. The child may continually be unwilling to participate in physical activities, signs of anxiety and fear may be visible. All these signs can be helpful in recognising weather or not a child has been abused (Maher). The ability to recognise that a child has been abused depends upon awareness on the part of each observer, not only of the physical state of the child but also of normal childhood behaviour.

Conclusion

Since the Ahern apology it is important for the state to admit that child abuse has occurred in Ireland for a long time, and has done so because of the failures in society, the system, the policy, the failures of management and more so, the senior members associated with the Industrial and Reformatory school in twentieth century Ireland. This admission is only the start of a long process many feel. Further reports are likely to follow and further cases will arise. Departmental investigations and the understanding of how such failures came about are needed so that a process can be derived with aims to reduce the risk of these failures repeating themselves.

The religious orders must also play their part. They need to examine how their principles became corrupted by abuse. They must ask themselves how they allowed breaches of their own rules to be accepted. They must learn why and how they dealt with reports of sexual, physical and emotional abuse and become aware of the people who committed it. They must examine their attitude to neglect and emotional abuse and, more generally, how the interests of the institutions and the religious orders came to be placed ahead those of the children who were in their care.

The Department of Education also had legal responsibility under the Children Act 1908 for all children residing in Ireland’s Industrial and Reformatory Schools. The Department knew that violence and beatings were endemic within the system itself yet the deferential and passive attitude towards the Congregations decreased its own ability to monitor the schools. When religious staff abused, the matter tended to be dealt with using internal disciplinary procedures and Canon Law. On the rare occasions when the Department was informed, it resulted in silence. A lack of collaboration and leadership on the matter led to a lack of transparency in how the matter of sexual abuse was dealt with between the orders and the Department.

An important aspect of this process of examination, recognition by the state and the religious orders is the understanding by everyone including present day teachers of the fact that the system failed the children in twentieth century Ireland because not only did occasional individual lapses occurred, but the overall policy of childcare failed to respect the rights and dignity of the child. The children’s safe care and welfare was not a primary focus. Services should be designed to the developmental, educational and health needs of the children that are placed within those services. Adults trusted with the care of children must prioritise the well-being and safety of those children above personal, professional or institutional loyalty.